Justice is one of the foundations upon which sustainable societies can be built, and the economy is a significant dimension of any society, particularly our own in which it seems to drive everything else. Just as it is possible to have economic war, it is also necessary to consider economic justice. It is most appropriate that ebbf, which inspires ethical business to build the future, should partner in this European Conference on Justice.

Injustice is at the heart of the materialistic consumer society. The early twentieth century materialistic interpretation of reality has become the dominant world faith in the direction of society. Dogmatic materialism has captured all significant centres of power and information at the global level, ensuring that no competing voices can challenge projects of world wide economic exploitation.1

We have built a consumer culture that only benefits a minority, while leaving a third of humanity without the necessities of life. Materialism's vision of human progress has produced today's consumer culture with its ephemeral goals. For the small minority of people who can afford them, the benefits it offers are immediate. But the breakdown of traditional morality has led to the triumph of animal impulses and hedonism. Selfishness has become a prized commercial resource; falsehood reinvents itself as public information; greed, lust, indolence, pride, violence are broadly accepted and have social and economic value.‏2

At the same time, materialism breeds social conflict. "Materialism, rooted in the West, has now spread to every corner of the planet, breeding, in the name of a strong global economy and human welfare, a culture of consumerism. It skilfully and ingeniously promotes a habit of consumption that seeks to satisfy the basest and most selfish desires, while encouraging the expenditure of wealth so as to prolong and exacerbate social conflict. One result is a deepening confusion on the part of young people everywhere, a sense of hopelessness in the ranks of those who would drive progress, and the emergence of a myriad social maladies.3

This is nothing new. Civilizations go through historical cycles, rising when they have social cohesion, and falling when they lose it. American researcher Peter Turchin, a mathematical ecologist, has been modeling cycles of civilization, and summarized his work a scientific paper in Nature in 2010. He concluded that a civilization or empire depends on social cohesion, using as his indicator collective violence. Population growth and new technology generate wealth for the elite, and the civilization rises until an oversupply of labour pushes the people down into poverty as the elite further concentrates wealth. But it is not the poor who revolt. A generation later, the young of the elite can no longer join the wealthy and themselves loose hope in the system. There is rising factionalism, anarchy, and then collapse, and the process starts again with about a 200 year cycle. Based on past patterns, Turchin predicted political instability and impending crisis in Western Europe and the United States, peaking about 2020. The only way to avoid this would be to reduce social inequality through social justice.4

We of course have long been warned about the excesses of material civilization. As Bahá'u'lláh (1817-1892) put it "The civilization, so often vaunted by the learned exponents of arts and sciences, will, if allowed to overleap the bounds of moderation, bring great evil upon men.... The day is approaching when its flame will devour the cities...".5

The value of justice as an ethical or spiritual principle is that it brings coherence to everything we do. Every action can be weighed on the scales of justice with respect to others or to the environment on which we all depend. It is the core of the ethical or spiritual framework from which we generate the values or rules that determine worth, desirability or utility. Such values are what determine how humans relate to each other. They are the social equivalent of DNA, encoding the information through which society is structured. For society to evolve, its values must also become more just. "The best beloved of all things in My sight is Justice."6

Justice is the first virtue of social institutions. Laws and institutions no matter how efficient and well-arranged must be reformed or abolished if they are unjust. The rights secured by justice are not subject to political bargaining or to the calculus of social interest.7

To consider how justice relates to our economic life, we need to start be defining a higher human purpose than just meeting material needs or getting rich, and this means questioning some common assumptions of the economic system. "How... can we resolve the paralyzing contradiction that, on the one hand, we desire a world of peace and prosperity, while, on the other, much of economic and psychological theory depicts human beings as slaves to self-interest? The faculties needed to construct a more just and sustainable social order ― moderation, justice, love, reason, sacrifice and service to the common good ― have too often been dismissed as naïve ideals. Yet, it is these, and related qualities that must be harnessed to overcome the traits of ego, greed, apathy and violence, which are often rewarded by the market and political forces driving current patterns of unsustainable consumption and production."8

"A sustainable social order is distinguished, among other things, by an ethic of reciprocity and balance at all levels of human organization.... Within such an order, the concept of justice is embodied in the recognition that the interests of the individual and of the wider community are inextricably linked. The pursuit of justice within the frame of unity (in diversity) provides a guide for collective deliberation and decision-making and offers a means by which unified thought and action can be achieved."9

In a world of plenty where there is enough food and other resources to meet everyone's basic needs, poverty is unjust. Development has traditionally been assessed by economic indicators like GDP which overlook the poor. Aggregate or statistical measures, usually at the national level, can hide great differences in development between individuals in a country or society. The more disadvantaged sections of the population have little economic impact, and are easily ignored and treated unjustly. Poverty leads to weaknesses in individual human capacity to create wealth, innovate, collaborate, manage, and build strong families and communities, which become in turn the primary barriers to effective development.

Justice is thus an essential principle for human development. The ultimate purpose of development should be to improve the prosperity and well-being of individual people. Ideally, the best measure of successful development would be that it enables every human being to fulfill his or her potential in life both in cultivating individual qualities, personality and capacities and in contributing to the advancement of society.

What are those potentials for a just and balanced life? For a holistic view of justice, it can be useful to list all those conditions and needs for human development from infancy through old age, the absence of which can be considered an injustice for the person concerned. This list resulted from a research project for an international organization aiming to define all the requirements for a fulfilling human development and balanced life at the individual level.10

Physical growth/health

- food and nutrition, access to basic foodstuffs, food security
- access to clean water and sanitation
- adequate standard of living
- mental and physical health care, access to primary health care, preventive and curative medicine, traditional healing
- access to energy (cooking, heating, lighting, modern appliances)
- adequate shelter, housing, clothing
- clean and unpolluted environment
- possibilities for rest and recreation, physical fitness
- special care for motherhood and childhood
- assistance with disabilities and handicaps
- care for the elderly

Security and safety

- life, liberty and security of person
- protection from slavery, torture, arbitrary detention
- security of home and family
- safety from disasters, unsafe conditions, excessive risks of physical harm
- protection from domestic violence
- freedom from crime, corruption in everyday life
- security from military action, violent repression, terrorism

Education

- right to literacy, access to knowledge
- formal, informal and continuing education
- full development of human personality
- education to understanding and friendship among all groups
- work skills, retraining
- ability to invest in education, to achieve highest potential
- access to and participation in scientific advancement and technology development
- access to information and communications technologies

Work

- right to work, employment, informal sector, subsistence, entrepreneurship opportunities for wealth creation, economic activity
- just and favorable remuneration, equal pay for equal work
- ability to meet own needs and provide for family, social safety net
- favorable work conditions, protection against unemployment, social protection, freedom of association, time for rest and leisure, reasonable working hours, holidays with pay
- author's rights to scientific, literary or artistic production
- access to extension services, technical advice, business management advice, legal advice, accounting services
- business access to bank account, credit, microcredit, business license
- effective process for litigation, dispute settlement, legal assistance

Financial system

- protection of real value of income, savings, capital and pensions from inflation
- access to financial services: payments, savings, credit and insurance
- reliable and adequate money supply, means of exchange, convertibility
- protection from banking failures, fraud, undisclosed risks
- security from theft, identity theft, unlawful dispossession, kidnapping, piracy, extortion

Justice and fairness

- recognition before the law, equal protection
- effective legal remedy, fair and public hearing, presumption of innocence
- low level of income inequality, fair distribution of wealth
- upward mobility with effort
- fair taxation, equitable share of responsibility

Human rights and freedoms

- personal freedom and initiative, equality in dignity and rights, free development of personality
- freedom of speech, right to hold and express opinions, to receive and impart information and ideas through all media regardless of frontiers
- right to peaceful assembly and association
- freedom of thought, conscience and religion, and to change religion/belief
- freedom to explore reality and to investigate the purpose of existence
- right to privacy of person, family, home, correspondence
- protection of reputation, honor
- right to own property
- free movement and choice of place of residence
- right to a nationality, and to change nationality
- protection from all sorts of discrimination including gender, etc.
- equal access to public services, right to social security
- right to take part in government, to vote, to participate in political life

Place in the community

- personal status and dignity
- social networks, friends to count on
- marriage and family, procreation and raising children, united family circle, protection of family, divorce
- a community respecting public order and morality
- community trust, reciprocity, resilience
- participation and empowerment
- mobility, public transport, access to markets
- security in the event of incapacity, sickness, disability, widowhood, or other unavoidable lack of livelihood
- old age security (pension, residence, etc.)

Cultural and spiritual identity

- right to a cultural identity, heritage and cultural diversity, a sense of belonging (having, retaining cultural roots and knowledge)
- having a value system, beliefs, ethics and morals
- vision and purpose in life, hope for a better life, a better world
- ability to develop the potential in human consciousness
- participation in culture and the arts
- access to beauty, to nature
- overall evaluative well-being or life satisfaction

At the level of social organization, there is a similar need to redefine our human social purpose. Justice has usually been determined and delivered within social groups, which means today that it is primarily a responsibility of national governments, each of which adopts and applies laws through a system of nation justice. However, this is no longer sufficient in a globalized world. Today justice must find expression in the oneness of humankind. "Acceptance of the oneness of mankind is the first fundamental prerequisite for the reorganization and administration of the world as one country, the home of humankind."11

Since humanity is one, each person is born into the world as a trust of the whole, and each bears a responsibility for the welfare of all of humanity. This collective trusteeship constitutes the moral foundation of human rights and of just governance. The welfare of each country and community today can only be derived from the well-being of the whole planet.

This applies particularly to the need to preserve the capacity of the planet to sustain human life. Sustainability is justice in action.

As trustees or stewards of the planet's resources and biodiversity, we must:
- ensure sustainability and equity of resource use into distant future;
- consider the environmental consequences of development activities;
- temper our actions with moderation and humility;
- value nature in more than economic terms; and
- understand the natural world and its role in humanity's collective development both material and spiritual.
Sustainable environmental management must come to be seen not as a discretionary commitment mankind can weigh against other competing interests, but rather as a fundamental responsibility that must be shouldered, a pre-requisite for spiritual development as well as the individual's physical survival.12‏

This is fundamental for a balanced life. "We cannot segregate the human heart from the environment outside us and say that once one of these is reformed everything will be improved. Man is organic with the world. His inner life moulds the environment and is itself also deeply affected by it. The one acts upon the other and every abiding change in the life of man is the result of these mutual reactions."13

That balance is expressed in social organization, as in all other system processes, as a just reciprocity. "Co-operation and reciprocity are essential properties which are inherent in the unified system of the world of existence, and without which the entire creation would be reduced to nothingness."14

Globalization also presents us with another challenge to the application of justice. We have globalized the movement of money and capital, and the World Trade Organization has as its mission to remove all barriers to the global movement of goods and services, but no one wants to admit the other logical dimension of globalization, the right of people to free movement around the world. Today, the system of national citizenship is a profound injustice. An accident of birth determines one's nationality and the associated opportunities and constraints. Countries reserve their benefits to their citizens, or to others they choose to admit as advantageous to their economy and society, and often forcibly eject any others. Immigration has become a sensitive issue everywhere, and xenophobia is on the rise. The barriers to free movement of people both result from, and help to maintain, extreme differences in wealth and development between nations. Yet we know that climate change and resource degradation will displace hundreds of millions of people in the coming decades. The pressures that this will create are beyond anything that present arrangements can deal with. Justice requires that every human being should have the right to develop her or his potential without any bias due to citizenship or immigration status.

JUSTICE IN THE ECONOMY

Our economic system reflects the flaws of a society based on the principle of national sovereignty trying to function in a globalized world. It is not only unjust to the poor, but also to future generations. Traditional economic thinking is challenged by the environmental crisis. Its belief that there is no limit to nature's capacity to fulfil any demand made on it is false. A culture which attaches absolute value to growth, to acquisition, and to the satisfaction of people's wants must recognize that such goals are not, by themselves, realistic guides to policy. In addition, economic decision-making tools cannot deal with the fact that most of the major challenges are global.15

It is unjust to sacrifice the well-being of the generality of humankind -- and even of the planet itself -- to the advantages which technological breakthroughs can make available to privileged minorities. Development programs have failed in their goal to eliminate poverty. Only development programmes that are perceived as meeting their needs and as being just and equitable in objective can hope to engage the commitment of the masses of humanity, upon whom implementation depends.16

A united world requires greater economic solidarity. We should consider every human being a trust of the whole. The goal of wealth creation should be to make everyone wealthy. At the same time, voluntary giving is more meaningful and effective than forced redistribution. Furthermore, the distribution of the planet's resources should be equitably regulated.

Part of the solution will come from redefining prosperity. As Baha'u'llah has put it, "Man's merit lieth in service and virtue and not in the pageantry of wealth and riches. Take heed that your words be purged from idle fancies and worldly desires and your deeds be cleansed from craftiness and suspicion. Dissipate not the wealth of your precious lives in the pursuit of evil and corrupt affection, nor let your endeavours be spent in promoting your personal interest. Be generous in your days of plenty, and be patient in the hour of loss.... Guard against idleness and sloth, and cling unto that which profiteth mankind, whether young or old, whether high or low."17‏

Work has not only an economic purpose, but is a spiritual obligation. "It is incumbent upon each one of you to engage in some occupation - such as a craft, a trade or the like. We have exalted your engagement is such work to the rank of worship of the one true God.... Waste not your hours in idleness and sloth, but occupy yourselves with what will profit you and others."18 Therefore unemployment is unjust. "It is the duty of those who are in charge of the organization of society to give every individual the opportunity of acquiring the necessary talent in some kind of profession, and also the means of utilizing such a talent, both for its own sake and for the sake of earning the means of his livelihood...."19 The requirement that society must provide work for everyone will increase the total wealth-generating capacity of the community, even if it goes against current concepts of productivity, just as a coral reef has not only highly productive species, but others that add marginally to total productivity by using resources that otherwise would go to waste.

An economy that favors self-interest and becoming rich leads to unjust extremes of poverty and wealth, as the rich and powerful can use their position to acquire even more power and wealth. But if we accept a higher human purpose, everything changes. "Know ye in truth that wealth is a mighty barrier between the seeker and his desire, the lover and his beloved. The rich, but for a few, shall in no wise attain the court of His presence nor enter the city of content and resignation...."20

"To make the accumulation of wealth the central purpose of one's life is unworthy of any human being.... What will... ensure true happiness both in this world and in the next is the development of spiritual qualities, such as honesty, trustworthiness, generosity, justice, and consideration for others, and the recognition that material means are to be expended for the betterment of the world.21

One symptom of this problem is the excessive salaries, bonuses and stock options that senior executives and bankers award themselves, raising the ethical question: What is a reasonable salary? Here is the guidance that Baha'ullah gave to the Sultan of Turkey in 1867 concerning the salaries he should pay the ministers in his government. "Overstep not the bounds of moderation, and deal justly with them that serve thee. Bestow upon them according to their needs, and not to the extent that will enable them to lay up riches for themselves, to deck their persons, to embellish their homes, to acquire the things that are of no benefit to them, and to be numbered with the extravagant. Deal with them with undeviating justice, so that none among them may either suffer want, or be pampered with luxuries. This is but manifest justice."22

Other mechanisms can ensure a more equitable distribution of wealth, such as through a graduated income tax. "All must be producers. Each person in the community whose income is equal to his individual producing capacity shall be exempt from taxation. But if his income is greater than his needs he must pay a tax until an adjustment is effected.... if his necessities exceed his production he shall receive an amount sufficient to equalize or adjust. Therefore taxation will be proportionate to capacity and production and there will be no poor in the community."23 Notice that justice requires a negative taxation; if a farmer has a bad year, or a person is unable to produce enough to meet basic needs, the difference should be provided by the community. This is just when everyone has an obligation to work and is provided with an opportunity to do so.

Another provision for justice in enterprises is profit-sharing. "The owners of properties, mines and factories should share their incomes with their employees and give a fairly certain percentage of their products to their workingmen in order that the employees may receive, beside their wages, some of the general income of the factory so that the employee may strive with his soul in the work."24

Once those with more wealth come to accept their higher purpose, this will encourage voluntary sharing. "Voluntary sharing... is a greater thing than the equalization of wealth. For equalization must be imposed from without, while sharing is a matter of free choice. Man reacheth perfection through good deeds, voluntarily performed, not through good deeds the doing of which was forced upon him. And sharing is a personally chosen righteous act: that is, the rich should extend assistance to the poor, they should expend their substance for the poor, but of their own free will, and not because the poor have gained this end by force."25

The unsustainable overconsumption of resources will also diminish as people choose voluntary simplicity in order to focus on higher social, cultural and spiritual accomplishments, following Baha'u'llah's advice: "Take from this world only to the measure of your needs, and forego that which exceedeth them."26

Economics itself needs to recognize that it has a higher purpose. It has ignored humanity's broader social and spiritual needs, resulting in the injustice of corrosive materialism among the wealthy and persistent poverty for masses of the world's peoples. Economic systems should give the peoples and institutions of the world the means to achieve the real purpose of development: the cultivation of the limitless potentialities in human consciousness.27

Poverty still exists today not because of a shortage of food and other resources, but because the poor cannot afford to buy them. The problem is social and economic, and thus subject to human intervention if the will is there. The technologies and resources exist to meet the basic needs of humanity and to eliminate poverty. The economics of food production and distribution will have to be reoriented and the critical role of the farmer in food and economic security properly valued. With regard to health – the physical, spiritual, mental and social well-being of the individual – access to clean water, shelter, and some form of cheap energy would go a long way toward eradicating the problems that currently plague vast numbers of individuals and communities.28

What is needed is a new economic model furthering a dynamic, just and thriving social order, strongly altruistic and cooperative in nature, providing meaningful employment, and helping to eradicate poverty in the world.29

The principle of justice can provide a new standard for economic conduct. "Eschew... dishonesty in one's transactions or the economic exploitation of others. There should be no contradiction between one's economic conduct and one's beliefs. By applying in one's life principles of fairness and equity, each person can uphold a standard far above the low threshold by which the world measures itself."30

"Social justice will be attained only when every member of society enjoys a relative degree of material prosperity and gives due regard to the acquisition of spiritual qualities. The solution, then, to prevailing economic difficulties is to be sought as much in the application of spiritual principles as in the implementation of scientific methods and approaches."31

Vigilance must be exercised in distinguishing "means" from "ends”. The acquisition of wealth is acceptable and praiseworthy to the extent that it serves as a means for achieving higher ends: providing people with basic necessities, fostering social progress, promoting the welfare of society, and contributing to the establishment of a world civilization. To make the accumulation of wealth the central purpose of life is unworthy of any human being.32 "Regrettably, a number of today's leaders--political, social, and religious--as well as some of the directors of financial markets, executives of multinational corporations, chiefs of commerce and industry, and ordinary people who succumb to social pressure and ignore the call of their conscience, ...justify any means in order to achieve their goals."33

This does not mean that wealth in itself is bad; it can be used justly. Wealth is praiseworthy in the highest degree, if it is acquired... in commerce, agriculture, crafts and industry, if the measures adopted... in generating wealth serve to enrich the generality of the people, and if the wealth thus obtained is expended for philanthropic purposes and the promotion of knowledge, for the establishment of schools and industry and the advancement of education, and in general for the welfare of society.34

Justice has practical applications in the enterprise and in economic activities. "The acquisition of wealth should be governed by the requirements of justice.... An employer and employee, for example, are bound by the laws and conventions that regulate their work, and each is expected to carry out his or her responsibilities with honesty and integrity.... But if the deeper implications of justice are to be realized, other preconditions to the legitimate acquisition of wealth must be taken into account, and prevailing norms reassessed in their light:
- the relationship between minimum wage and the cost of living, especially in light of the contribution workers make to a company's success and their entitlement to a fair share of the profits;
- the wide margin, often unjustifiable, between the production costs of certain goods and the price at which they are sold;
- the question of the generation of wealth through measures that enrich the generality of the people.
Certain approaches to obtaining wealth--so many of which involve the exploitation of others, the monopolization and manipulation of markets, and the production of goods that promote violence and immorality--are unworthy and unacceptable.35

Business itself can shift from being part of the problem to becoming part of the solution. "It is the concentration of wealth in the hands of the few that is in urgent need of attention. Indeed, the tremendous wealth generated by transnational corporations could be an integral part of the solution to tackle poverty, through strict regulation to ensure good global citizenship, adherence to human rights norms and the distribution of wealth for the benefit of the larger society."36

By adopting justice as a guiding principle, "the pathway to sustainability will be one of empowerment, collaboration and continual processes of questioning, learning and action in all regions of the world.... As the sweeping tides of consumerism, unfettered consumption, extreme poverty and marginalization recede, they will reveal the human capacities for justice, reciprocity and happiness."37 Justice is the balancing principle, both individually and collectively, to bring coherence to a life of service.

ENDNOTES

REFERENCES

'Abdu'l-Bahá, Foundations of World Unity. New York: Bahá'í Publishing Committee, 1936.

'Abdu'l-Bahá, Selections from the Writings of 'Abdu'l-Bahá, 79, p. 115

'Abdu'l-Bahá, in Compilation on Huququ'llah, p. 14-15; Compilation on Social and Economic Development, p. 12

Baha'i International Community. 1995. The Prosperity of Humankind. Office of Public Information, Baha'i International Community, 1995. https://iefworld.org/bicpros.htm

Bahá'í International Community. 1998. Valuing Spirituality in Development: Initial Considerations Regarding the Creation of Spiritually Based Indicators for Development. A concept paper written for the World Faiths and Development Dialogue, Lambeth Palace, London, 18-19 February 1998. https://iefworld.org/bicvsid.htm

Bahá'í International Community. 2008. Eradicating Poverty: Moving Forward As One. http://bic.org/statements-and-reports/bic-statements/08-0214.htm

Bahá'í International Community. 2010. Rethinking Prosperity: Forging Alternatives to a Culture of Consumerism. Contribution to the 18th Session of the United Nations Commission on Sustainable Development, New York, 3 May 2010. http://bic.org/statements-and-reports/bic-statements/10-0503.htm

Bahá'u'lláh, The Hidden Words of Bahá'u'lláh. Wilmette, Illinois: Bahá'í Publishing Committee, 1954.

Bahá'u'lláh, Gleanings from the Writings of Bahá'u'lláh. Wilmette, Illinois: Bahá'í Publishing Trust, 1939.

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Bahá'u'lláh, The Summons of the Lord of Hosts. Haifa: Bahá'í World Centre, 2002.

Bahá'u'lláh, Tablets of Bahá'u'lláh revealed after the Kitáb-i-Aqdas. Haifa: Bahá'í World Centre, 1978, p. 138

Dahl, Arthur Lyon. 2013. Putting the Individual at the Centre of Development: Indicators of Well-being for a New Social Contract. Paper presented at the Third Rencontres Internationales de Reims on Sustainability Studies, "Post-2015 Sustainable Development Goals: Towards a New Social Contract", Reims, France, 18-20 June 2013. https://iefworld.org/ddahl13a

Rawls, John. 1999. A Theory of Justice. Rev. Ed., Cambridge: Harvard University Press.

Shoghi Effendi. 1933. Letter written on behalf of Shoghi Effendi, 17 February 1933, Compilation on Social and Economic Development, 22.

Turchin, Peter, 2010. Political instability may be a contributor in the coming decade. Nature, vol. 463, Issue 7281, p. 608. (4 February 2010). doi:10.1038/463608a

Universal House of Justice. 1985. The Promise of World Peace. Haifa: Bahá'í World Centre.

Universal House of Justice. 2005. One Common Faith. Wilmette, Illinois: Bahá'í Publishing Trust

Universal House of Justice, To the believers in the Cradle of the Faith, 2 April 2010.

Universal House of Justice, To the Baha'is of the World, Ridvan 2012.