Dahl 2015i Marine Resources

International Resource Panel Scoping Workshop on Marine Resources
UNEP, Paris, 14-15 April 2015

Workshop session 4: resource efficiency, resource economics and the sustainable management of marine resources, land/sea interactions and impacts of land-based activities

Resource efficiency improvements and marine resources management
in the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)

Arthur Lyon Dahl
International Environment Forum
Geneva, Switzerland

The oceans are the ultimate sink and depository for many of the more persistent and mobile products and wastes of our civilization. What was once considered an inexhaustible resource is now under serious pressure as human impacts are encountering planetary limits. It is not possible to consider land-based impacts and marine resources management independently of a complex systems perspective on the whole human-earth system. The coastal zone in particular is a porous boundary with sources and sinks of materials and influences that may lie far beyond the coastal zone and require management in a much larger context.

Fortunately this context has been addressed in action plans for sustainable development such as Agenda 21 (1992), and now in the Sustainable Development Goals, targets and indicators which are to be adopted on 25-27 September at a UN summit in New York. While there seems to be a reasonable consensus on the Goals and targets, the indicators were subject to intergovernmental negotiations on 23-27 March, and the results were not yet available at the time of writing.

Key actors, institutions and initiatives

There was a major effort in the 1980s and 90s to put in place international and regional legal frameworks addressing land-based sources (LBS) of marine pollution, or marine pollution from land-based activities (LBA), but other participants in this workshop may be able to provide a better assessment of their effectiveness. It may, in fact, be too late to act by the time pollutants reach or cross the land-sea boundary, and the problem needs to be tackled at the source as part of larger scale sustainable production and consumption processes.

UNCLOS calls upon States to adopt laws and regulations to prevent, reduce and control pollution of the marine environment from land-based sources. The Global Programme of Action for the Protection from the Marine Environment from Land-based Activities (GPA, http://www.gpa.unep.org/) is the only global intergovernmental mechanism directly addressing the connectivity between terrestrial, freshwater, coastal and marine ecosystems. Its current focus is marine litter, wastewater, and nutrients. The GPA highlights the need for action to reduce the pollutant load to the seas from land-based sources and activities. Both of these instruments emphasize the need to act at the regional level to address this problem. The Regional Seas Programmes often include LBS protocols or action plans, such as the Land Based Sources (LBS) Protocol of the Cartagena Convention, an instrument for dealing with environmental pollution reaching the marine environment from land-based sources. The Protocol is supported by a special subprogram of the Caribbean Environment Programme called the Assessment and Management of Environmental Pollution Sub-programme (AMEP).

Some of the global and regional multilateral environmental agreements concern specific pollutants, such as POPs, mercury, lead, radioactive isotopes, and other toxic chemicals, and aim to reduce their total production and use. This indirectly affects their inputs to the marine environment, making them important partners in any integrated process for marine environmental protection.

In the context of this paper, it will be important that these processes and mechanisms take on board the post-2015 agenda and the Sustainable Development Goals, targets and indicators, and add their own indicators for issues not effectively covered in the global process.

With respect to resource efficiency improvements and marine resources management in the Sustainable Development Goals, there is Goal 14 - Oceans, Seas and Marine Resources, with its own targets (UN 2014) as proposed by the Open Working Group for adoption by the UN Summit in September, but many other goals and targets also have relevance to coastal issues and management. ANNEX 1 lists SDG targets with marine and coastal implications.

Beyond the targets, it is the indicators that will be adopted to measure progress towards the targets that will have the most significant impact on policy and resources management. While governments will probably be aiming for the smallest number of indicators that are easy to calculate in the global SDG process, there is nothing to prevent multilateral environmental agreements, countries or regional groupings and organizations, and even civil society, from developing other indicators where needed and relevant. Eventually some of these could prove their usefulness and practicality and be added to the global SDG process, which is seen as open-ended and evolving in the future.

At least three organizations have made significant proposals for ocean and coastal indicators in the SDG process.

The Global Ocean Commission (www.globaloceancommission.org) has made recent recommendations about global ocean governance, including a sustainable development goal for the ocean, keeping plastics out of the ocean, establishing binding international safety standards and liability for offshore oil and gas, and a Global Ocean Accountability Board to monitor progress towards a healthy ocean (GOC 2014). It has also proposed elements of indicators for the targets under SDG 14 on Oceans, Seas and Marine Resources (GOC 2015). These are summarized in ANNEX 2.

The UN Sustainable Development Solutions Network (unsdsn.org) has proposed and regularly updated indicators for all the SDGs, including on oceans, drawing on inputs from many organizations (SDSN 2015). They have been quite comprehensive in suggesting indicators that still need to be developed, as well as considering the most appropriate organizations to be responsible for each indicator. The relevant SDSN indicators are listed in ANNEX 3.

Most recently, the UN Statistical Commission has offered to lead the indicators development effort, and has prepared its own rather conservative list of indicators (UNSC 2015), trying to reduce the numbers to what national statistical offices feel they can cope with. Each indicator was rated A,B,C, for feasibility, suitability and relevance to the target. This is the proposal that was considered at the Post-2015 Intergovernmental Negotiations on 23-27 March 2015 and is most likely to be close to what is adopted. The relevant indicators are listed in ANNEX 4, and grouped under the targets with other indicators in ANNEX 5.

Major challenges/emerging issues, knowledge gaps and policy-relevant questions

It may help to group the major challenges under a set of topical headings concerned with land-based inputs, integrated planning, resource efficiency, coastal resource management, climate change adaptation and human benefits. Some of these challenges or dimensions are covered by SDG goals and targets, and these are listed in ANNEX 5, together with the indicators proposed by the UN Statistical Commission, the Global Ocean Commission, and the UN Sustainable Development Solutions Network for each target. It is interesting that there is relatively little overlap between the three indicator proposals, and that many targets have no indicators identified. It seems likely that the very ambitious Sustainable Development Goals and their wide-ranging targets will be reduced in practice to a relatively small number of easily calculated indicators. However this leaves the possibility open to research, develop and push for additional indicators, either to add to the SDG set, or to be used at the national level or by other stakeholders.

Recent events have renewed the debate about land-based pollution and the ability of the ocean to spread it far and wide. After the great Japan earthquake and tsunami, debris traveled all the way to the Pacific Coast of North America, and Fukushima radioactivity both contaminated the local environment and was transported, although highly diluted, by currents across much of the Pacific.

Petrochemicals are another challenge for resource efficiency to reduce pollution. They are not only used as fossil fuels, but for agrochemicals and plastics, all of which are important marine contaminants. Plastics have been in the news with the great Pacific garbage patch and other gyres concentrating plastic pollution, entering foodchains, accumulating toxic chemicals, and affecting wildlife. Some of the organizations campaigning on this issue are the Natural Resources Defense Council (http://www.nrdc.org/oceans/plastic-ocean/), Greenpeace International (http://www.greenpeace.org/international/en/campaigns/oceans/fit-for-the-future/pollution/trash-vortex/), the 5gyres Institute (http://5gyres.org/) and The Ocean Cleanup (http://www.theoceancleanup.com/). Contamination with petrochemical products comes not only from activities directly in the coastal area and the marine environment, but also from far inland.

The response must include work with industries producing problematic materials, chemicals and products, supported by life-cycle analyses, to find solutions or alternatives, as was done with chloroflourocarbons under the Montreal Protocol. For plastics, reduced use, recycling, and more degradable substitutes should all be encouraged, as trying to remove them as they enter the marine environment will seldom be practical except in waste treatment facilities. However, it is also important to consider the implications of substitution with alternatives. What will this change? Will problems emerge with the new materials or alternatives? There should be precautionary life cycle analysis of innovative chemicals, and a consideration of ultimate sinks.

Sediment is another major land-based input to the coastal environment, with both positive and negative changes in sediment inputs. Too much sediment may smother coral reefs and seagrass beds, and prevent light from reaching deeper primary producers. Where natural sediment supplies are cut off by dams or reduced river flow, coastal erosion may result. Apart from direct erosion in the coastal zone, the response requires attention far inland to erosion, soil degradation, intensive agriculture, deforestation, channelizing and damming rivers, reduced flow from water extraction, and increased flooding from climate change.

With the acceleration of sea level rise with climate change, there is a new set of challenges from coastal erosion affecting coastal processes of erosion and deposition, the dynamics of estuarine ecosystems, and the possible drowning of coastal ecosystems such as coral reefs and seagrass beds. It is an open issue if these ecosystems will be able to migrate upwards with the rising sea level, even if human developments and infrastructure do not prevent them.

Another related set of challenges comes from illegal waste dumping, ship-breaking, and the legacy of past dumping and shipwrecks, such as in WWII battle areas in the Pacific, with dozens if not hundreds of sunken wrecks.

Emerging issues and knowledge gaps concern micropollutants (antibiotics, endocrine disrupters, pharmaceutical residues, nanomaterials, etc.) which may interfere with biological processes including chemical signalling in coastal ecosystems. Recent research has shown how important intra- and interspecies communications with chemicals is in forests and soils, so there is every reason to believe that this may be even more important in aquatic environments. We are totally ignorant of the damage we may be doing.

Another important LBS is atmospheric inputs which are more diffuse than direct dumping or water-borne inputs. Increased Sahara dust deposition from widespread destruction of the desert surface crust by motorized vehicles and subsequent wind erosion has altered the ecology of the Black Sea and the Caribbean by providing a source of iron for plankton blooms, and soil fungal spores that cause diseases in Caribbean gorgonians. It is probable that the loess dust from China that reaches North America and everywhere in-between may have similar effects. There is also atmospheric deposition of toxic pollutants, such as those distilled from uses in the tropics and redeposited in the Arctic.

For all these reasons, increased monitoring of a wide range of land-based inputs to the coastal zone should be included in priority actions.

Much has already been said about the importance of integrated coastal planning and management. What is changing is the increasing effect of accelerating sea level rise, destabilizing Arctic coastlines, impacting on coastal infrastructure, threatening coastal cities and port facilities, etc. There will be a growing risk of pollutants released from flooded areas, abandoned urban and industrial sites, and landfills. Planning is needed to predict the timing of human displacements, since anticipatory planning can avoid human disasters. Since there is little prospect of stopping some sea level rise even if global warming is controlled rapidly, the cost, impacts and long-term usefulness of protective works and engineering solutions needs to be considered.

With the coastline becoming more dynamic, there are also all the biological challenges of maintaining coastal ecosystems, both terrestrial and marine, as the seashore migrates inland. Can coastal ecosystems migrate on their own? Will human intervention be necessary, and how?

Improving resource efficiency will concern not only those productive resources with direct human uses, such as fisheries and aquaculture, but also the many ecosystem services that natural systems provide in the coastal zone. In a complex area like a coast, every component has multiple uses and benefits, and increasing efficiency for one use might jeopardize other benefits. This is particularly important to consider when one use is of commercial interest while other benefits are public goods that are not priced in the market. Only good science and monitoring, integrated planning, and an effective dialogue between public and private partners can find the appropriate balance between different perspectives on resource efficiency.

The rapid decline in environmental quality and productivity in many coastal and near-shore areas shows how unsustainable many human activities and inputs are at present. Excessive nutrient inputs from agriculture and human settlements are producing dead zones in coastal waters made anoxic by overproduction of organic matter, with ecological impacts on species composition and fisheries productivity. Eutrophication also causes unnatural algal blooms, red tides, intoxications, and may contribute to ciguatera fish poisoning.

Another challenge to sustainability is the increasing number of invasive species, including from ballast water releases, transport of fouling organisms on ship's bottoms, aquaculture (both intentional introductions that escape, and unintentional incidental introductions), introductions with drifting marine debris, and now new canal building or enlargement that will allow massive introductions, such as the Suez Canal enlargement, and the new canal in Nicaragua between the Pacific and the Caribbean without the freshwater barrier present in the Panama Canal.

There is still massive ignorance of microbial life and ecosystems in the marine and coastal environments, we are therefore unconscious of our potential human impacts on these ecosystems.

Climate change is already having major biological impacts in the coastal zone as species adapt to the effects of temperature change. More research is needed to understand if there are thresholds for species survival, and the relative capacities for migration. Coral bleaching has already illustrated how coastal ecosystems that evolved in a relatively stable environment may have difficulty in adapting to the rapid pace of expected climate change. There is already some documentation of the longitudinal migration of species along coastlines. The challenge will be to determine what human interventions may be necessary to maintain or restore ecosystems and ecosystem services, both longitudinally along coasts, and inland as sea levels rise.

Attention is now also being paid to the impacts of ocean acidification, and whether it will lead to adaptation or extinction, the alteration of ecosystems, effects up food chains, and possible tipping points leading to the collapse of major biological processes in the marine environment.

For effective environmental policy and resource management, it is also important to consider the human benefits from the coastal zone, and the ways that resource efficiency and sustainable marine resources management can contribute to the economy and human welfare. For example, the coastal zone is a major tourism destination, but this requires high environmental quality and the preservation of the resources and environmental values that attract tourists, like clean beaches and coral reefs. Coastal living marine resources are a major protein source for hundreds of millions of people. In the larger context of sustainable development, there are many SDGs that will measure progress in maintaining or improving the benefits that the coastal zone provides to the population that lives there, if there is appropriate geographic disaggregation.

The coastal zone is also particularly vulnerable to natural disasters, which are growing in strength with climate change. Many things can be done in the coastal zone to increase resilience and reduce vulnerability, including infrastructure modifications, maintenance or restoration of natural protective features like mangrove forests or coral reefs, and planning controls to prevent human activities from encroaching on areas most subject to the extreme impacts of waves, wind and flooding.

A few of the questions that arise from this quick review are:
How to close the life cycle of plastics to prevent entry into marine environment: abandoning some uses, increasing recycling, changing composition to be biodegradable, etc?
Is it feasible to collect marine plastic waste? Could autonomous vehicles use it as a fuel supply, collecting and consuming it, attracted or remotely steered to concentrations?
How do we organize an agricultural transformation to reduce excess fertilizer runoff, improve soils to reduce the need for supplements, and make more efficient use of fertilizers where necessary?
Can we stimulate revegetation, soil restoration, windbreaks, and other erosion control measures, as well as greater desert protection, perhaps even artificially rebuilding desert crusts, as well as flood control, all to manage sediment inputs to the coastal zone?

Recommendations for a scoping study

The coastal zone is perhaps the environmental component that will see the most radical and dynamic changes in the decades ahead from climate-change-related disasters, sea level rise, and ocean acidification, while being the focus of many competing human uses, requiring integrated, dynamic, adaptive and anticipatory planning and resource management.

Most LBS problems must be addressed as part of resource efficiency in industry, commerce, packaging, transport, agriculture, land management, waste control, etc. before they reach the coastal zone. It is system changes rather than end-of-pipe solutions that can address the sources of the problems.

Research is needed to determine the relative importance of control at sources, improved coastal planning and engineering, remedial measures in the marine environment (such as collecting plastic waste, clean-up of the worst polluted areas) and environmental restoration in the coastal zone. Since resources are limited, it is important to determine the most cost-effective approaches for both the short and long term.

There is a need for a global legal instrument on plastics that would address the requirements to modify their production and consumption, select those uses that are still appropriate, and organize plastic recycling and waste management. Technologies are also needed for the removal or destruction of plastic wastes.

Research is also required on the potential problems from micropollutants and the precautionary measures needed.

With respect to the SDGs and their targets and indicators, specific aspects of the disaggregation of SDG indicators, geographically or functionally, may be needed to signal problems and progress with LBS.

Work is required on the needed balance of international and national regulation, local planning and control, voluntary actions, and innovation to find alternatives.

REFERENCES

ANNEX 1 - SDGS AND TARGETS WITH MARINE RESOURCES IMPLICATIONS

1.4 equal rights to natural resources
1.5 resilience to climate-related extreme events, environmental shocks and disasters

2.1 access to safe, nutritious and sufficient food
2.2 end all forms of malnutrition [coastal seafood as protein source]
2.3 double the agricultural productivity of... fishers through secure and equal access to... other productive resources and inputs
2.4 ensure sustainable food production systems that help maintain ecosystems, that strengthen capacity for adaptation to climate change, extreme weather, flooding and other disasters
2.5 maintain genetic diversity of cultivated plants, farmed and domesticated animals and their related wild species, and ensure fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising from the utilization of genetic resources and associated traditional knowledge [gene banks of aquaculture species]
2.a increase investment in rural infrastructure, research and extension services, technology development, and gene banks
2.b correct and prevent trade restrictions and distortions in world markets including the parallel elimination of all forms of export subsidies [fisheries subsidies and trade distortions]
2.c ensure the proper functioning of food commodity markets

3.3 combat hepatitis, water-borne diseases, and other communicable diseases
3.9 substantially reduce the number of deaths and illnesses from hazardous chemicals and air, water, and soil pollution and contamination

5.a give women equal rights to economic resources and access to natural resources

6.1 access to safe and affordable drinking water
6.2 access to adequate and equitable sanitation
6.3 improve water quality by reducing pollution, eliminating dumping and minimizing release of hazardous chemicals and materials, halving the proportion of untreated wastewater, and increasing recycling and safe reuse
6.4 increase water-use efficiency
6.5 implement integrated water resources management at all levels, including through transboundary cooperation
6.6 protect and restore water-related ecosystems, including wetlands, rivers, aquifers
6.a support to developing countries in water and sanitation, including desalination, water efficiency, wastewater treatment, recycling and reuse technologies
6.b participation of local communities for improving water and sanitation management

7.1 access to affordable, reliable, and modern energy services
7.2 increase substantially the share of renewable energy
7.a promote investment in energy infrastructure and clean energy technologies

8.4 improve resource efficiency in consumption and production
8.9 promote sustainable tourism which creates jobs, promotes local culture and products

9.1 develop quality, reliable, sustainable and resilient infrastructure
9.4 upgrade infrastructure and retrofit industries, with increased resource use efficiency and greater adoption of clean and environmentally sound technologies

11.2 provide access to safe, affordable, accessible and sustainable transport systems
11.4 strengthen efforts to protect and safeguard the world’s cultural and natural heritage
11.5 reduce the number of deaths and economic losses caused by disasters, including water-related disasters
11.6 reduce the adverse per capita environmental impact of cities, including by municipal and other waste management
11.7 access to safe, inclusive and accessible, green and public spaces
11.a strengthen national and regional development planning
11.b cities and human settlements integrated policies and plans towards resource efficiency, mitigation and adaptation to climate change, resilience to disasters, and holistic disaster risk management

12.2 sustainable management and efficient use of natural resources
12.4 achieve environmentally sound management of chemicals and all wastes and significantly reduce their release to air, water and soil
12.5 substantially reduce waste generation
12.b monitor sustainable development impacts for sustainable tourism

13.1 strengthen resilience and adaptive capacity to climate related hazards and natural disasters
13.2 integrate climate change measures into national policies, strategies, and planning [sea level rise]

14. Conserve and sustainably use the oceans, seas and marine resources for sustainable development
14.1 prevent and significantly reduce marine pollution of all kinds, particularly from land-based activities, including marine debris and nutrient pollution
14.2 sustainably manage and protect marine and coastal ecosystems to avoid significant adverse impacts, including by strengthening their resilience, and take action for their restoration, to achieve healthy and productive oceans
14.3 minimize and address the impacts of ocean acidification
14.4 effectively regulate harvesting, and end overfishing and destructive fishing practices and implement science-based management plans
14.5 conserve at least 10 per cent of coastal and marine areas
14.6 prohibit fisheries subsidies which contribute to overcapacity and overfishing
14.7 increase the economic benefits to SIDS and LDCs from the sustainable use of marine resources, including through sustainable management of fisheries, aquaculture and tourism
14.a increase scientific knowledge, develop research capacities and transfer marine technology
14.b provide access of small-scale artisanal fishers to marine resources and markets
14.c ensure the full implementation of international law, as reflected in UNCLOS for states parties to it, including, where applicable, existing regional and international regimes for the conservation and sustainable use of oceans and their resources by their parties

15.1 ensure conservation, restoration and sustainable use of terrestrial and inland freshwater ecosystems and their services
15.3 restore degraded land and soil [to reduce erosion, siltation and sedimentation]
15.7 end poaching and trafficking of protected species of flora and fauna, and address both demand and supply of illegal wildlife products [corals, tropical fish, turtles, precious corals, shells, etc.]
15.8 prevent the introduction and significantly reduce the impact of invasive alien species on land and water ecosystems, and control or eradicate the priority species
15.9 integrate ecosystems and biodiversity values into national and local planning

16.4 reduce illicit financial and arms flows, and combat all forms of organized crime [coasts are significant locations for smuggling, human trafficking, and other criminal activities]
16.8 broaden and strengthen the participation of developing countries in the institutions of global governance [GPA, Regional Seas Conventions, Regional Fisheries Agencies/Agreements]

17.7 promote development, transfer, dissemination and diffusion of environmentally sound technologies

ANNEX 2 - GLOBAL OCEAN COMMISSION proposed indicators for SDG Goal 14 - Oceans, Seas and Marine Resources (GOC 2015)

14.1
- Micro‐plastics concentration in seawater
- Accumulation of plastics, including micro‐plastics, in marine life (fish, seabirds, marine mammals)
- Number of countries with taxes or restrictions on certain plastics uses, including single-use plastics bans, and programmes to improve waste management and increase circular use.

14.2
- Number of relevant flag States having ratified relevant Regional Fisheries Management Organizations (RFMOs) (indicator also relevant to Target 14.c)
- Number of States having ratified the UN Fish Stocks Agreement (UNFSA) (indicator also relevant to Target 14.c)
- Number of RFMOs effectively allocating all catch limits in accordance with scientific advice (indicator relevant to Target 14.c)
- Number of RFMOs carrying out independent performance reviews to assess, in particular, whether the ecosystem-approach and the precautionary principle are upheld
- Number of fish species and fish stocks commercially exploited with no catch limit assigned by any Regional Fisheries Management Organizations or Arrangements

14.3
- Research programmes on carbon sequestration trends
- Monitor pH vulnerable species populations i.e. marine calcifiers such as for example coral reefs

14.4
- Flag States’ total industrial fishing fleet size and capacity
- Increase in ratio between artisanal fisheries/industrial fisheries
- Number of ratifications to the UN Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) Port States Measures Agreement (PSMA) and number of Port States developing supporting domestic legislation (indicator also relevant to target 14.c.)
- Number of Flag States and RFMOs requesting IMO numbers and transponders for all their vessels fishing in the high seas and in distant waters
- Number of Flag States and RFMOs banning the transhipment of fish at sea
- Number of countries and RFMOs having established satellite monitoring programmes and sharing information among each other
- Number of fishing vessels suspected of IUU operations identified by law enforcement agencies and RFMOs
- Number of countries conducting Environment Impact Assessments as a pre‐condition to allow their vessels to pursue bottom fishing in the high seas (indicator also relevant to Target 14.c)
- Percentage of fish stocks within biologically sustainable levels (i.e. fish stocks at or above the level that can produce their Maximum Sustainable Yield), which were previously overfished.

14.5
- Countries’ Marine Protected Area surfaces (by 2020)
- High seas’ MPA surface (especially beyond 2020)

14.6
- Number of countries publically disclosing detailed data on fisheries subsidies related to vessel measures such as vessels building, modernization or scrapping
- Ratio between expenditure on fisheries data collection, science and monitoring and control, versus public expenditure supporting extraction
- Reduction of direct‐transfer subsidies and tax breaks for fuel to high seas and distant water fishing

14.c
- Number of relevant flag States having ratified relevant RFMOs (indicator proposed under Target 14.2)
- Number of States having ratified the UNFSA agreement (indicator proposed under Target 14.2)
- Number of RFMOs effectively assigning all catch quotas in accordance with scientific advice (indicator proposed under Target 14.2)
- Number of ratifications to the UN Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) Port States Measures Agreement (PSMA) and number of port States developing supporting domestic legislation (indicator proposed under Target 14.4)
- Number of countries conducting Environment Impact Assessments as a pre‐condition to allow their vessels to pursue bottom fishing in the high seas (indicator proposed under Target 14.4)
- In addition, the Global Ocean Commission believes that it would be important to include a reference to the number of Parties to the Minamata Convention on Mercury of 2014, the most recent Multilateral Environmental Agreement relevant to Target 14.1

ANNEX 3 - SDSN proposed indicators relevant to the coastal zone and LBS (SDSN 2015)

5. Percentage of women, men, indigenous peoples, and local communities with secure rights to land, property, and natural resources, measured by (i) percentage with documented or recognized evidence of tenure, and (ii) percentage who perceive their rights are recognized and protected. [Goals 1, 5, 10, 11]

6. Losses from natural disasters, by climate and non-climate-related events (in US$ and lives lost) [Goals 1, 2, 6, 11, 13]

47. Percentage of wastewater flows treated to national standards [and reused] – to be developed [Goals 3, 6, 9, 11, 12, 14]
48. [Indicator on water resource management] – to be developed [Goals 6, 12, 14, 15]

71. Percentage of urban solid waste regularly collected and well managed [Goal 11]

72. Disclosure of Natural Resource Rights Holdings [Goals 12, 15, 16, 17] access to coastal resources

77. Availability and implementation of a transparent and detailed deep decarbonization strategy, consistent with the 2°C - or below - global carbon budget, and with GHG emission targets for 2020, 2030 and 2050. [Goals 9, 11, 12, 13, 17] ocean acidification
78. CO2 intensity of new power generation capacity installed (gCO2 per kWh), and of new cars (gCO2/pkm) and trucks (gCO2/tkm) [Goals 7, 8, 9, 11, 13] ocean acidification
79. Net GHG emissions in the Agriculture, Forest and other Land Use (AFOLU) sector (tCO2e) [Goals 2, 13, 15] ocean acidificiation

83. Annual change in forest area and land under cultivation (modified MDG Indicator) [Goals 2, 12, 13, 15] erosion indicator
85. Annual change in degraded or desertified arable land (% or ha) [Goals 2, 15] sediment sources

GOAL 14. Conserve and sustainably use the oceans, seas and marine resources for sustainable development
81. Share of coastal and marine areas that are protected [Goal 14]
82. Percentage of fish tonnage landed within Maximum Sustainable Yield (MSY) [Goals 2, 12, 14]
Complementary national indicators:
14.1. Eutrophication of major estuaries
14.2. Ocean acidity (measured as surface pH)
14.3. [Indicator on the implementation of spatial planning strategies for coastal and marine areas] – to be developed
14.4. Area of coral reef ecosystems and percentage live cover
14.5. Proportion of fish stocks within safe biological limits (MDG Indicator)
14.6. Percentage of fisheries with a sustainable certification
14.7. Does flag state require International Maritime Organization (IMO) numbers and transponders for all fishing vessels more than 24 meters or 100 tons?
14.8. Has Regional Fisheries Management Organizations (RFMO) established satellite-monitoring program?
14.9. [Use of destructive fishing techniques] – to be developed
14.10. [Indicator on access to marine resources for small-scale artisanal fishers] – to be developed
14.11. [Indicator on transferring marine technology] – to be developed
14.12. Area of mangrove deforestation (hectares and as % of total mangrove area)

COMPLEMENTARY NATIONAL INDICATORS
1.4. [Disaster Risk Reduction Indicator] – to be developed
2.8. Percentage of total daily energy intake from protein in adults
6.3. Proportion of the population connected to collective sewers or with on-site storage of all domestic wastewaters
6.6. Proportion of the flows of treated municipal wastewater that are directly and safely reused
6.7. [Reporting of international river shed authorities on transboundary river-shed management] – to be developed
6.9. [Indicator on participation of local communities for improving water and sanitation management] – to be developed
7.3. Share of energy from renewables
12.3. [Indicator on chemical pollution] – to be developed
12.5. [Indicator on policies for sustainable tourism] – to be developed
15.3. Vitality Index of Traditional Environmental Knowledge
15.4. [Indicator on access to genetic resources] – to be developed
15.5. Abundance of invasive alien species

ANNEX 4 - UN STATISTICAL COMMISSION

proposed indicators relevant to the coastal zone and LBS (UNSC 2015) with ABC ratings for feasibility, suitability and relevance

2.3.1 Value of agricultural production per hectare (measured in constant USD/hectare, disaggregated for the two lowest quintiles of countries’ farm size distribution, as well as for female-headed smallholder producer households) BBB [target includes fishers]
2.4.2 Absolute levels of greenhouse gas emissions in relevant sectors and sub-sectors. BBB

6.3.1 Percentage of waste water safely treated BAA
6.3.2 Percentage of receiving water bodies with ambient water quality not presenting risk to the environment or human health
6.5.1 Status of Integrated Water Resources Management Implementation BBB
6.5.2 Availability of operational arrangements for transboundary basin management
6.6.1 Change in wetlands extent over time (% change over time) BBB

11.5.1 Number of people killed, injured, displaced, evacuated, relocated or otherwise affected by disasters BBA
11.5.2 Number of housing units damaged and destroyed BBA
11.6.1 Percentage of urban solid waste regularly collected and recycled (disaggregated by E-waste and non-E-waste) BAA
11.b.1 Percent of cities with more than 100,000 inhabitants that are implementing risk reduction and resilience strategies aligned with accepted international frameworks (such as the successor to the Hyogo Framework for Action on Disaster Risk Reduction) that include vulnerable and marginalized groups in their design, implementation and monitoring CBB

12.4.1 Number of Parties to, and number of national reports on the implementation of, international multilateral environmental agreements on hazardous chemicals and waste BBB
12.4.2 Annual average levels of selected contaminants in air, water and soil from industrial sources, energy generation, agriculture, transport and wastewater and waste treatment plants BBA
12.5.1 National waste generation (solid waste to landfill and incineration and disaggregated data for e-waste) in kg per capita/year BAA
12.5.2 National recycling rate, tonnes of material recycled BAA
12.b.1 Percentage of the destinations with a sustainable tourism strategy/action plan, with agreed monitoring, development control and evaluation arrangement CBB
12.b.2 Adopted national legislation to integrate sustainability objectives in tourism operations BBB

13.1.2 Number of casualties and amount of economic losses from climate-related hazards and natural disasters BBB

14.1.1 Fertilizer consumption (kg/ha of arable land) BBA
14.1.2 Metric tonnes per year of plastic materials entering the ocean from all sources CBB
14.2.1 Percentage of coastline with formulated and adopted ICM/MSP plans CBB
14.2.2 Ocean Health Index CBB
14.3.1 Average marine acidity (pH) measured at agreed suite of representative sampling stations CBB
14.3.2 Coral coverage CBB
14.4.1 Fish species, threatened BAA
14.4.2 Proportion of fish stocks within biologically sustainable limits BBA
14.5.1 Percentage area of each country's EEZ in MPA Percentage area of ABNJ in MPA Percentage area of global ocean under MPA CBB
14.5.2 Coverage of protected areas BBA
14.6.1 Dollar value of negative fishery subsidies against 2015 baseline CBB
14.6.2 Legal framework or tax/trade mechanisms prohibiting certain forms of fisheries subsidies CBB
14.7.1 Fisheries as a % of GDP AAA
14.7.2 Level of revenue generated from sustainable use of marine resources CBB
14.a.1 Number of researchers working in marine technology and biodiversity BBB
14.a.2 Budget allocated to research in the field of marine technology BBB
14.b.1 By 2030, X% of small scale fisheries certified as sustainable; Y% increase in market access for small scale fisheries CBB
14.b.2 By 2030, increase by X% the proportion of global fish catch from sustainably managed small scale fisheries CBB
14.c.1 Adoption of a legal framework and number of associated court cases for Law of the Sea and regional ocean regimes CBB
14.c.2 Number of countries implementing either legally or programmatically the provisions set out in regional seas protocols BBB

15.1.1 Coverage of protected areas broken down by ecosystem type, including total area of forests in protected areas (thousands of hectares) BAA
15.3.1 Trends in land degradation BBA
15.3.2 Area of land/soils under sustainable management BBA
15.4.1 Coverage of protected areas AAA
15.5.1 Red List Index BAA
15.8.1 Adoption of national legislation relevant to the prevention or control of invasive alien species BAA
15.9.2 Number of national development plans and processes integrating biodiversity and ecosystem services values BBB
15.a.2 National incentive schemes that reward positive contribution to biodiversity and ecosystem services BBB
15.c.2 Extent to which sustainable practices and management by women and men pastoralists, farmers, fishers, forest dwellers on common lands, including national and trans-national mobility, are legally protected and enhanced by policies and regulations CBB

17.14.1 Number of countries that have ratified and implemented relevant international instruments under the IMO (safety, security, environmental protection, civil liability and compensation and insurance) BBB
17.14.2 Number of countries with multi-sectoral and multi-stakeholder coordination mechanisms in place for a coordinated implementation of chemicals and wastes conventions and frameworks BBB

ANNEX 5 - SDG TARGETS BY RESOURCE MANAGEMENT ISSUE

with proposed indicators: SC=UN Statistical Commission, GOC=Global Ocean Commission, SDSN=UN Sustainable Development Solutions Network

3.9 substantially reduce the number of deaths and illnesses from hazardous chemicals and air, water, and soil pollution and contamination
• SDSN: 12.3. [Indicator on chemical pollution] – to be developed

6.3 improve water quality by reducing pollution, eliminating dumping and minimizing release of hazardous chemicals and materials, halving the proportion of untreated wastewater, and increasing recycling and safe reuse
• SC: 6.3.1 Percentage of waste water safely treated
• SC: 6.3.2 Percentage of receiving water bodies with ambient water quality not presenting risk to the environment or human health
• SC: 14.1.1 Fertilizer consumption (kg/ha of arable land)
• SDSN: 15. Nitrogen use efficiency in food systems
• SDSN: 47. Percentage of wastewater flows treated to national standards [and reused] – to be developed
• SDSN: 6.3. Proportion of the population connected to collective sewers or with on-site storage of all domestic wastewaters
• SDSN: 6.6. Proportion of the flows of treated municipal wastewater that are directly and safely reused
• SDSN: 6.7. [Reporting of international river shed authorities on transboundary river-shed management] – to be developed
• SDSN: 6.9. [Indicator on participation of local communities for improving water and sanitation management] – to be developed
• SDSN: 14.1. Eutrophication of major estuaries

6.a support to developing countries in water and sanitation, including desalination, water efficiency, wastewater treatment, recycling and reuse technologies

9.4 upgrade infrastructure and retrofit industries, with increased resource use efficiency and greater adoption of clean and environmentally sound technologies

11.6 reduce the adverse per capita environmental impact of cities, including by municipal and other waste management
• SC: 11.6.1 Percentage of urban solid waste regularly collected and recycled (disaggregated by E-waste and non-E-waste) BAA
• SDSN: 71. Percentage of urban solid waste regularly collected and well managed

12.4 achieve environmentally sound management of chemicals and all wastes and significantly reduce their release to air, water and soil
• SC: 12.4.1 Number of Parties to, and number of national reports on the implementation of, international multilateral environmental agreements on hazardous chemicals and waste
• SC: 12.4.2 Annual average levels of selected contaminants in air, water and soil from industrial sources, energy generation, agriculture, transport and wastewater and waste treatment plants
• SC: 17.14.1 Number of countries that have ratified and implemented relevant international instruments under the IMO (safety, security, environmental protection, civil liability and compensation and insurance)
• SC: 17.14.2 Number of countries with multi-sectoral and multi-stakeholder coordination mechanisms in place for a coordinated implementation of chemicals and wastes conventions and frameworks
• GOC: - Number of countries with taxes or restrictions on certain plastics uses, including single-use plastics bans, and programmes to improve waste management and increase circular use.

12.5 substantially reduce waste generation
• SC: 12.5.1 National waste generation (solid waste to landfill and incineration and disaggregated data for e-waste) in kg per capita/year
• SC: 12.5.2 National recycling rate, tonnes of material recycled

14.1 prevent and significantly reduce marine pollution of all kinds, particularly from land-based activities, including marine debris and nutrient pollution
• SC: 14.1.1 Fertilizer consumption (kg/ha of arable land)
• SC: 14.1.2 Metric tonnes per year of plastic materials entering the ocean from all sources
• GOC: - Micro‐plastics concentration in seawater
• GOC: - Accumulation of plastics, including micro‐plastics, in marine life (fish, seabirds, marine mammals)
• GOC: - Number of countries with taxes or restrictions on certain plastics uses, including single-use plastics bans, and programmes to improve waste management and increase circular use.

14.3 minimize and address the impacts of ocean acidification
• SC: 2.4.2 Absolute levels of greenhouse gas emissions in relevant sectors and sub-sectors
• SC: 14.3.1 Average marine acidity (pH) measured at agreed suite of representative sampling stations
• SC: 14.3.2 Coral coverage
• GOC: - Research programmes on carbon sequestration trends
• GOC: - Monitor pH vulnerable species populations i.e. marine calcifiers such as for example coral reefs
• SDSN: 77. Availability and implementation of a transparent and detailed deep decarbonization strategy, consistent with the 2°C - or below - global carbon budget, and with GHG emission targets for 2020, 2030 and 2050
• SDSN: 78. CO2 intensity of new power generation capacity installed (gCO2 per kWh), and of new cars (gCO2/pkm) and trucks (gCO2/tkm)
• SDSN: 79. Net GHG emissions in the Agriculture, Forest and other Land Use (AFOLU) sector (tCO2e)
• SDSN: 14.2. Ocean acidity (measured as surface pH)

15.1 ensure conservation, restoration and sustainable use of terrestrial and inland freshwater ecosystems and their services
• SDSN: 83. Annual change in forest area and land under cultivation (modified MDG Indicator) [erosion indicator]

15.3 restore degraded land and soil [to reduce erosion, siltation and sedimentation]
• SC: 15.3.1 Trends in land degradation
• SC: 15.3.2 Area of land/soils under sustainable management
• SDSN: 85. Annual change in degraded or desertified arable land (% or ha)

15.8 prevent the introduction and significantly reduce the impact of invasive alien species on land and water ecosystems, and control or eradicate the priority species
• SC: 15.8.1 Adoption of national legislation relevant to the prevention or control of invasive alien species
• SDSN: 15.5. Abundance of invasive alien species

11.a strengthen national and regional development planning
• SDSN: 14.3. [Indicator on the implementation of spatial planning strategies for coastal and marine areas] – to be developed

13.2 integrate climate change measures into national policies, strategies, and planning [sea level rise]

14.a increase scientific knowledge, develop research capacities and transfer marine technology
• SC: 14.a.1 Number of researchers working in marine technology and biodiversity
• SC: 14.a.2 Budget allocated to research in the field of marine technology

14.c ensure the full implementation of international law, as reflected in UNCLOS for states parties to it, including, where applicable, existing regional and international regimes for the conservation and sustainable use of oceans and their resources by their parties
• SC: 14.c.1 Adoption of a legal framework and number of associated court cases for Law of the Sea and regional ocean regimes
• SC: 14.c.2 Number of countries implementing either legally or programmatically the provisions set out in regional seas protocols
• GOC: - Number of relevant flag States having ratified relevant RFMOs
• GOC: - Number of States having ratified the UNFSA agreement
• GOC: - Number of RFMOs effectively assigning all catch quotas in accordance with scientific advice
• GOC: - Number of ratifications to the UN Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) Port States Measures Agreement (PSMA) and number of port States developing supporting domestic legislation
• GOC: - Number of countries conducting Environment Impact Assessments as a pre‐condition to allow their vessels to pursue bottom fishing in the high seas
• GOC: - Number of Parties to the Minamata Convention on Mercury of 2014

15.9 integrate ecosystems and biodiversity values into national and local planning
• SC: 15.9.2 Number of national development plans and processes integrating biodiversity and ecosystem services values

16.8 broaden and strengthen the participation of developing countries in the institutions of global governance [GPA, Regional Seas Conventions, Regional Fisheries Agencies/Agreements]

1.5 resilience to climate-related extreme events, environmental shocks and disasters

11.5 reduce the number of deaths and economic losses caused by disasters, including water-related disasters
• SC: 1.5.1 Number of people affected by hazardous events by sex
• SC: 11.5.1 Number of people killed, injured, displaced, evacuated, relocated or otherwise affected by disasters
• SC: 11.5.2 Number of housing units damaged and destroyed
• SDSN: 1.4. [Disaster Risk Reduction Indicator] – to be developed

11.b cities and human settlements integrated policies and plans towards resource efficiency, mitigation and adaptation to climate change, resilience to disasters, and holistic disaster risk management
• SC: 11.b.1 Percent of cities with more than 100,000 inhabitants that are implementing risk reduction and resilience strategies aligned with accepted international frameworks (such as the successor to the Hyogo Framework for Action on Disaster Risk Reduction) that include vulnerable and marginalized groups in their design, implementation and monitoring

2.a increase investment in rural infrastructure, research and extension services, technology development, and gene banks

11.2 provide access to safe, affordable, accessible and sustainable transport systems

6.5 implement integrated water resources management at all levels, including through transboundary cooperation
• SC: 6.5.1 Status of Integrated Water Resources Management Implementation
• SC: 6.5.2 Availability of operational arrangements for transboundary basin management
• SDSN: 48. [Indicator on water resource management] – to be developed

6.b participation of local communities for improving water and sanitation management

7.2 increase substantially the share of renewable energy
• SDSN: 7.3. Share of energy from renewables

8.9 promote sustainable tourism which creates jobs, promotes local culture and products

12.b monitor sustainable development impacts for sustainable tourism
• SC: 12.b.1 Percentage of the destinations with a sustainable tourism strategy/action plan, with agreed monitoring, development control and evaluation arrangement
• SC: 12.b.2 Adopted national legislation to integrate sustainability objectives in tourism operations
• SDSN: 12.5. [Indicator on policies for sustainable tourism] – to be developed

2.5 maintain genetic diversity of cultivated plants, farmed and domesticated animals and their related wild species, and ensure fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising from the utilization of genetic resources and associated traditional knowledge [gene banks of aquaculture species]
• SDSN: 15.3. Vitality Index of Traditional Environmental Knowledge
• SDSN: 15.4. [Indicator on access to genetic resources] – to be developed

11.4 strengthen efforts to protect and safeguard the world’s cultural and natural heritage

14.5 conserve at least 10 per cent of coastal and marine areas
• SC: 14.5.1 Percentage area of each country's EEZ in MPA; Percentage area of ABNJ in MPA; Percentage area of global ocean under MPA
• SC: 14.5.2 Coverage of protected areas
• SC: 15.1.1 Coverage of protected areas broken down by ecosystem type, including total area of forests in protected areas (thousands of hectares)
• SC: 15.4.1 Coverage of protected areas
• SC: 15.5.1 Red List Index
• SC: 15.a.2 National incentive schemes that reward positive contribution to biodiversity and ecosystem services
• GOC: - Countries’ Marine Protected Area surfaces (by 2020)
• GOC: - High seas’ MPA surface (especially beyond 2020)
• SDSN: 81. Share of coastal and marine areas that are protected
• SDSN: 87. Protected areas overlay with biodiversity

15.7 end poaching and trafficking of protected species of flora and fauna, and address both demand and supply of illegal wildlife products [corals, tropical fish, turtles, precious corals, shells, etc.]

2.3 double the agricultural productivity of... fishers through secure and equal access to... other productive resources and inputs
• SC: 2.3.1 Value of agricultural production per hectare (measured in constant USD/hectare, disaggregated for the two lowest quintiles of countries’ farm size distribution, as well as for female-headed smallholder producer households)

2.b correct and prevent trade restrictions and distortions in world markets including the parallel elimination of all forms of export subsidies [fisheries subsidies and trade distortions]

14.7 increase the economic benefits to SIDS and LDCs from the sustainable use of marine resources, including through sustainable management of fisheries, aquaculture and tourism
• SC: 14.7.1 Fisheries as a % of GDP
• SC: 14.7.2 Level of revenue generated from sustainable use of marine resources

14.b provide access of small-scale artisanal fishers to marine resources and markets
• SC: 14.b.1 By 2030, X% of small scale fisheries certified as sustainable; Y% increase in market access for small scale fisheries
• SC: 14.b.2 By 2030, increase by X% the proportion of global fish catch from sustainably managed small scale fisheries
• SDSN: 14.10. [Indicator on access to marine resources for small-scale artisanal fishers] – to be developed

17.7 promote development, transfer, dissemination and diffusion of environmentally sound technologies
• SDSN: 14.11. [Indicator on transferring marine technology] – to be developed

6.5 implement integrated water resources management at all levels, including through transboundary cooperation

6.a support to developing countries in water and sanitation, including desalination, water efficiency, wastewater treatment, recycling and reuse technologies

2.4 ensure sustainable food production systems that help maintain ecosystems, that strengthen capacity for adaptation to climate change, extreme weather, flooding and other disasters

6.6 protect and restore water-related ecosystems, including wetlands, rivers, aquifers
• SC: 6.6.1 Change in wetlands extent over time (% change over time)

14.2 sustainably manage and protect marine and coastal ecosystems to avoid significant adverse impacts, including by strengthening their resilience, and take action for their restoration, to achieve healthy and productive oceans
• SC: 14.2.1 Percentage of coastline with formulated and adopted ICM/MSP plans
• SC: 14.2.2 Ocean Health Index
• SC: 14.3.2 Coral coverage
• GOC: - Number of relevant flag States having ratified relevant Regional Fisheries Management Organizations (RFMOs)
• GOC: - Number of States having ratified the UN Fish Stocks Agreement (UNFSA)
• GOC: - Number of RFMOs effectively allocating all catch limits in accordance with scientific advice
• GOC: - Number of RFMOs carrying out independent performance reviews to assess, in particular, whether the ecosystem-approach and the precautionary principle are upheld
• GOC: - Number of fish species and fish stocks commercially exploited with no catch limit assigned by any Regional Fisheries Management Organizations or Arrangements
• SDSN: 14.4. Area of coral reef ecosystems and percentage live cover
• SDSN: 14.5. Proportion of fish stocks within safe biological limits (MDG Indicator)
• SDSN: 14.6. Percentage of fisheries with a sustainable certification
• SDSN: 14.12. Area of mangrove deforestation (hectares and as % of total mangrove area)

14.4 effectively regulate harvesting, and end overfishing and destructive fishing practices and implement science-based management plans
• SC: 14.4.1 Fish species, threatened
• SC: 14.4.2 Proportion of fish stocks within biologically sustainable limits
• GOC: - Flag States’ total industrial fishing fleet size and capacity
• GOC: - Increase in ratio between artisanal fisheries/industrial fisheries
• GOC: - Number of ratifications to the UN Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) Port States Measures Agreement (PSMA) and number of Port States developing supporting domestic legislation
• GOC: - Number of Flag States and RFMOs requesting IMO numbers and transponders for all their vessels fishing in the high seas and in distant waters
• GOC: - Number of Flag States and RFMOs banning the transhipment of fish at sea
• GOC: - Number of countries and RFMOs having established satellite monitoring programmes and sharing information among each other
• GOC: - Number of fishing vessels suspected of IUU operations identified by law enforcement agencies and RFMOs
• GOC: - Number of countries conducting Environment Impact Assessments as a pre‐condition to allow their vessels to pursue bottom fishing in the high seas
• GOC: - Percentage of fish stocks within biologically sustainable levels (i.e. fish stocks at or above the level that can produce their Maximum Sustainable Yield), which were previously overfished.
• SDSN: 82. Percentage of fish tonnage landed within Maximum Sustainable Yield (MSY)
• SDSN: 14.7. Does flag state require International Maritime Organization (IMO) numbers and transponders for all fishing vessels more than 24 meters or 100 tons?
• SDSN: 14.8. Has Regional Fisheries Management Organizations (RFMO) established satellite-monitoring program?
• SDSN: 14.9. [Use of destructive fishing techniques] – to be developed

14.6 prohibit fisheries subsidies which contribute to overcapacity and overfishing
• SC: 14.6.1 Dollar value of negative fishery subsidies against 2015 baseline
• SC: 14.6.2 Legal framework or tax/trade mechanisms prohibiting certain forms of fisheries subsidies
• GOC: - Number of countries publically disclosing detailed data on fisheries subsidies related to vessel measures such as vessels building, modernization or scrapping
• GOC: - Ratio between expenditure on fisheries data collection, science and monitoring and control, versus public expenditure supporting extraction
• GOC: - Reduction of direct‐transfer subsidies and tax breaks for fuel to high seas and distant water fishing

1.5 resilience to climate-related extreme events, environmental shocks and disasters

2.4 ensure sustainable food production systems that help maintain ecosystems, that strengthen capacity for adaptation to climate change, extreme weather, flooding and other disasters

11.5 reduce the number of deaths and economic losses caused by disasters, including water-related disasters
• SDSN: 6. Losses from natural disasters, by climate and non-climate-related events (in US$ and lives lost)

13.1 strengthen resilience and adaptive capacity to climate related hazards and natural disasters
• SC: 13.1.2 Number of casualties and amount of economic losses from climate-related hazards and natural disasters

13.2 integrate climate change measures into national policies, strategies, and planning [sea level rise]

1.4 equal rights to natural resources
• SC: 15.c.2 Extent to which sustainable practices and management by women and men pastoralists, farmers, fishers, forest dwellers on common lands, including national and trans-national mobility, are legally protected and enhanced by policies and regulations
• SDSN: 72. Disclosure of Natural Resource Rights Holdings

5.a give women equal rights to economic resources and access to natural resources

14.b provide access of small-scale artisanal fishers to marine resources and markets
• SDSN: 5. Percentage of women, men, indigenous peoples, and local communities with secure rights to land, property, and natural resources, measured by (i) percentage with documented or recognized evidence of tenure, and (ii) percentage who perceive their rights are recognized and protected
• SDSN: 14.10. [Indicator on access to marine resources for small-scale artisanal fishers] – to be developed

2.2 end all forms of malnutrition [coastal seafood as protein source]
• SDSN: 2.8. Percentage of total daily energy intake from protein in adults

3.9 substantially reduce the number of deaths and illnesses from hazardous chemicals and air, water, and soil pollution and contamination